Plato and Aristotle

Almost everyone has heard of the two great philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Few people though, know much about their life long achievements. Their own personal beliefs and philosophies. In order to understand them, we must fist examine the background of the two philosophers. Plato was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. When Plato was a child, his father died, and his mother married Pyrilampes, who was an associate of the statesman Pericles. As a young individual Plato had political ambitions, but he became disillusioned by the political leadership in Athens. He eventually became a disciple of Socrates. Socrates spent his time talking to people about ethical topics. He hoped by this means to discover definitions of the virtues, thinking that in learning what virtue is he would become virtuous and that this would make his life a happy one. He also hoped to expose other people's false conceit of knowledge about ethical matters, thinking that such conceit prevented them from becoming virtuous and happy. Socrates appealed to some people, but he repelled many others; he also came to be associated in the public mind with anti-democratic factions in Athens. In 399 BC, Socrates was tried on a charge of impiety, convicted, and put to death. Plato wit! nessed the death of Socrates at the hands of the Athenian democracy in 399 BC. By accepting Socrates basic philosophy and dialectical style of debate: the pursuit of truth through questions, answers, and additional questions. In 387 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the institution often described as the first European university. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Aristotle was the Academy's most prominent student. During his life time, he had wrote many books towards philosophy, however The Republic is the one of more important work in the history of European thought. In essenc...

The History and Development of Inline Skating

The History and Development of Inline Skating There are historic ice skating relics that date back as far as 3000 B.C. But,  inline roller skates probably originated much later in Scandinavia or Northern Europe where ice skating was an easy way to travel short distances. By the early 17th century,  these early Dutch  called themselves skeelers  and skated on frozen canals in the winter. They eventually used a primitive form of roller skate, made by attaching wooden spools to a platform to allow similar travel in warmer weather. The first officially documented inline skate actually appeared in London in 1760. The progression from transportation to a substitute for on stage ice skating, to recreational skating, to fitness skating and eventually to inline competitive sports has been closely linked to the development of inline skate technology. Lets follow the developments and technological improvements that have been made to the original inline skates that lead to the comfortable and sometimes highly specialized equipment used by inline skaters today. The  National Museum of Roller Skating  was the source for many  of the historical facts in this article. 1743 The first documented reference to inline or roller skating was left by a London stage performer. The inventor of these skates, which were probably an inline design, is unknown and is lost in history. 1760 The first known inventor of an inline roller skate was John Joseph Merlin. Merlin was born on September 17, 1735, in Huys, Belgium. He grew up to become a musical instrument maker and accomplished mechanical inventor. One of his inventions was a pair of skates with a single line of small metal wheels. He wore the skates as a publicity stunt to promote his museum, and from the beginning, stopping was a problem. It is believed that one of his ballroom stunts ended in a dramatic crash into a mirrored wall because of this defect. For the next century, roller skate wheels followed the inline design alignment. 1789 The inline skate idea made its way to France in 1789 with Lodewijik Maximilian Van Lede and his skate that he called the patin a terre which translates from French to â€Å"land skates† or earth skates. Van Ledes skates consisted of an iron plate with wooden wheels attached. He was a sculptor at the Academy Bruges in Paris and was considered as very eccentric. In 1819 the first inline skate was patented and inlines remained until 1863 when skates with two  axles  were developed. These quad skates allowed more control and their popularity spread quickly in North America and Europe. The four-wheeled quad skate quickly dominated the skate manufacturing industry. Some companies continued to design skates using wheels in a line, but they were not taken seriously. 1818 In Berlin, Germany, inline roller skates were used in a ballet for ice skating moves when it was impossible have ice on a stage. The ballet called Der Maler oder die Wintervergn Ugungen: â€Å"The Artist or Winter Pleasures†. Ice skating was one of the winter pleasures simulated by roller skaters. No one knows what kind of skates were used. 1819 The Petitbled, the first roller skate patented, was an inline. This patent was issued in Paris, France, in 1819. M. Petitbleds invention had three inline wheels which were either wood, metal or ivory. He thought his inline skate would allow a skater to simulate ice skating moves, but the wheel construction did not allow it, and the wheels kept slipping on hard surfaces. 1823 Robert John Tyers, a London ice skater, patented a skate called the Rolito with five wheels in a single row on the bottom of a boot. The center wheels were larger than the wheels on either end of the frame to allow a skater to maneuver by shifting his weight, but the Rolito could not follow a curved path like inline skates today. 1828 Another roller skate patent was issued in Austria in 1828 to August Lohner, a Viennese clockmaker. Until then, all designs had been for inline skates, but this version was like a tricycle, with two wheels in back and one in front. He also added a ratchet to prevent the skate from rolling backward. In France, Jean Garcin got a patent for the Cingar. The name was created by reversing the syllables of his last name. The Cingar was an inline skate with three wheels. Garcin opened a skating rink, taught skating and even wrote a book called  Le Vrai Patineur  (The True Skater). Garcin had to close his rink because of the number of  skating injuries  to patrons. 1840 Monsieur and Madame Dumas, professional dancers, led a performance of fancy roller skating at Paris’s Port Saint Martin Theatre in 1840. The Corse Halle Tavern, near Berlin, featured barmaids who served the patrons on roller skates. This was needed due to the large size of beer halls in Germany at this time. 1849 The first successful use of a skate with wheels in a line was recorded in 1849 by Louis Legrange, who built them to simulate ice skating in the French Opera, Le Prophete.  These skates had major  problems because the skaters who used them could not maneuver  or stop.   1852 English J. Gidman applied for a patent for roller skates equipped with ball bearings. He had to wait 30 years to see them in use on skates. 1857 Public roller skating rinks opened in the Floral Hall and in the Strand of London. 1859 The Woodward skate was invented in London in 1859 with four vulcanized rubber wheels on each frame for better traction than iron wheels on a wooden floor. Like the Rolito, these skates had middle wheels that were bigger than the end wheels to make it easier to turn, but this did not fix maneuvering problems. This skate was used by Jackson Haines, the founder of modern figure skating, for exhibitions. 1860 Reuben Shaler, an inventor from Madison, Connecticut, developed a skate designed to solve the maneuverability problem. Shaler patented a Parlor Skate, the first roller skate patent issued by the U.S. Patent Office. This skate had four wheels attached by pins to a hanger which resembled todays inline frames. They offered a rubber or leather ring on the wheels to allow them to grip the skating surface. These inline skates never caught on. 1863 James Plimpton initiated  quad roller skate history. When he invented quad skates, they provided greater control than the inline models and were much easier to use. Plimpton put one pair of wheels in front and another in back. He put the wheels on pivots, so they could turn independently of the frame and inserted rubber cushions, so skaters could lean in the direction of their turns. 1866 The first Plimpton skates clamped on to the shoe, but improved designs used straps with buckles instead. Plimpton installed a skating floor in his furniture business in New York, leased skates to customers, founded the New York’s Roller Skating Association, introduced skating proficiency tests, operated roller rinks in the Northeast, and traveled to give lessons. Four years later, the proficiency test medals were being given out in 20 countries where Plimpton skates were used. 1867 Jean Garcin’s Cingar skate had a brief revival at the 1867 Exposition Universelle in Paris. But, eventually all inline roller skates became obsolete after Plimpton’s â€Å"quad† skate became popular. 1876 William Bown patented a design for roller skates wheels in Birmingham, England. Bown’s design made an effort to keep the two bearing surfaces of an axle, fixed and moving, apart. A toe stop design that helped skaters stop rolling by tipping the skate down at the toe  was patented. Toe stops are still used today on inline figure skates and on most quad skates. 1877 Bown worked closely with Joseph Henry Hughes, who patented the elements of an adjustable ball or roller bearing system similar to the system used in today’s skate and skateboard wheels. 1884 Levant M. Richardson secured a patent to use steel ball bearings in skate wheels to reduce friction, and allow skaters to increase the speed with minimum effort. The invention of pin ball-bearing wheels allowed skates to roll with ease and made skating shoes weigh less. 1892 Walter Nielson of New York got the patent for a â€Å"Combined Ice and Roller Skate.† His 14-wheel skates had a patent inscription that suggested that â€Å"a pad of rubber, leather, or like material should be placed ... so that when the skater desires to stop, it is only necessary to press the pad ... against the floor or ground.† This suggestion for stopping pads was ahead of its time. 1884 Levant M. Richardson  gets a patent  for steel  ball bearings  in skate wheels. These bearings reduce friction, so skaters can go faster with less effort. 1898 In 1898, Levant Richardson started the Richardson Ball Bearing and Skate Company, which provided skates to most professional skate racers of the time. The end of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century marked the appearance of cycles-skates with structures similar to modern skates online. They were invented in response to a need to skate on all types of surfaces and were the first step in the development of all-terrain skates using rubber wheels or tires. Later in the century, modern inlines emerged. 1900 The Peck Snyder Company patents an inline skate with two wheels in 1900. 1902 Over 7,000 people attended opening night at the Coliseum public skating rink in Chicago. 1905 John Jay Young of New York City creates and patents an adjustable length, clamp-on inline skate. 1910 The Roller Hockey Skate Company designs a three-wheeled inline skate with a leather shoe and the rear wheel raised to allow the skater to pivot on the center wheel. This inline was made for roller hockey by the Roller Hockey Skate Company of New York City in 1910 with boots from the Brooks Athletic Shoe Company. 1930s The Best-Ever Built Skate Company manufactures an inline skate with three wheels positioned close to the ground. The original patents for Jet inline skates for ice cross-training were filed in the 1930s. An advertisement for them was published in a 1948 issue of Popular Mechanics. 1938 Christian Siffert, of Deerfield, Illinois, patents a design for an inexpensive inline skate, which could not only be used on sidewalks but also convert to sharp-edged wheels, on ice. The Jet Skate, the ad claims, is the only skate with brakes to stop quick. This claim was probably false since at that time several brakes had been invented and patented for roller skates. The Jet Skate brake looked a lot like todays heel brakes and was designed to be used the same way. Brakes have always been a design problem for skate manufacturers. 1941 Modern inline skates begin to appear in the Netherlands. 1953 The first U.S. patent for modern inline skates, created to behave like ice runners with individually sprung and cushioned wheels, was granted under patent number US 2644692 in July 1953 to Ernest Kahlert of Santa Ana, CA.  They appeared in the April 1950 issue of Popular Mechanics and in the April 1954 issue of Popular Science. An inline skate with 2 round, artificial rubber wheels, and no brake was developed by Rocker Skate Company in Burbank, California. It was advertised in â€Å"Popular Science† in the November 1953 issue and in â€Å"Popular Mechanics† in the February 1954 issue. The ads described them as quiet, fast and good for stops and turning. 1960 The Chicago Skate Company tries to market an inline skate similar to todays equipment, but it was shaky, uncomfortable and the brakes were not dependable. A USSR inline skate was made in 1960 with 4 wheels and a toe stop. It appeared to have solid construction and is similar to some of the current inline figure skates with wheel-shaped, front-mounted toe stops. 1962 A heavy-looking inline skate called the Euba-Swingo was manufactured by the Euba company in Germany. This skate was available permanently mounted to a boot or as a clamp-on skate. Euba-Swingo skates were rockered, had a front-mounted toe-stop and were used for dry-land figure skating training. Inline skates also made an appearance in the Russian movie КÐ ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ²Ã ° Ð ±Ã µÃ ½Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ºÃ ¸ (1962) at about 9m23s into the film.   1964 An advertisement in a magazine shows BiSkates, another inline skate intended as an alternative for ice training. 1966 The Chicago Roller Skate Company manufactures their inline skate with a boot. The inline skate which influenced Scott Olson was a 1966 Chicago Roller Skate Company skate. These skates featured four wheels in a line with the front and back wheel extending beyond the boot like an ice skate blade, and they played an important part in the development of inline skating.In Germany, Friedrich Mayer obtained a patent for his inline skate. No one was interested at the time, because of the popularity of quad roller skates, featuring two wheels per axle, a canvas shoe and a stopper in the front.In England, the Tri-Skate developed, a skate with three wheels, high leather shoes and a stopper in front, and according to Dutch articles on this topic, as many as 100,000 pairs of inline skates (not necessarily all Tri-Skates) were sold in Holland and neighboring countries. This happened before the development of  RollerBlade  and should be considered a great success. The details of Tri-Skate origi ns are uncertain. The design is either American or Dutch, the frames were made in England by Yaxon (a toy producer) and the figure boots were made in Italy. This means that the skates were sold in those countries, too. 1972 In 1972,  Mountain Dew attempted to sell  Mettoys  Skeeler in Canada. This  three-wheeled inline skate  was developed for Russian hockey players and speed skaters. The Skeelers, another name for skating or skater,  were early versions of today’s inline skates and were produced in adult and childrens  sizes. Celebrities who tried them as publicity stunts included  dancer Lionel Blair and runner Derek Ibbotson, who had set a world record for the mile in 1957. 1978 Speedys, a product of SKF, were an inline skate that featured soft boots, a frame, and four wheels. Unfortunately, the late 70s market was not ready for inline sports and the production was discontinued. 1979 Scott and Brennan Olson, brothers and hockey players from Minneapolis, Minnesota, find a pair of Chicago inline roller skates and begin redesigning them using modern materials. They add polyurethane wheels, attach the frames to ice hockey boots, and add a rubber toe-brake to the new design. The modifications were intended for ice hockey training when ice is not available. After over 200 years of trial and error, inline skating is ready to emerge. 1980 Scott and Brennan Olson established Oles Innovative Sports which became  Rollerblade, Inc.  after selling inline skates with no brake at all to the hockey players who were the early adopters. The Olson brothers introduced a new skating phenomenon that has never been equaled in roller sports history. The proper term to use when describing this skating is inline roller skating or inline skating, but Rollerblade made such an impact that the name has become synonymous with the sport in spite of the fact that Rollerblade is an inline skate manufacturer. The modern style of inline speed skates was developed as an ice skate substitute and used by a Russian athlete training on dry land for his Olympic long track speed skating events. A photo of American skater Eric Heiden using Olsons skates to train for the 1980 Olympics on a road in Wisconsin was published in  Life magazine. The Olson brothers adopted and adapted the Chicago inline design over the years, and caused a public attraction to roller skating that has been hard to match in the sport’s history. The name Rollerblade has become inline skating to most people, overshadowing many other inline skate manufacturers and leaving out a lot of the previous history of roller and inline roller skating. 1982 In 1982, Scott Olson adds the toe stop to his inline skate but found that it didnt work well. 1984 In 1984, Scott Olson adds a heel brake to help beginners get over the fear of being unable to stop. Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele, Jr. purchased Olsons company, and it eventually became Rollerblade, Inc. This was not the first company to manufacture inline skates, but Rollerblade expanded inline skating to include more than just hockey players by offering comfortable skates with dependable, easy-to-use brakes. This introduced millions to inline skating sports. 1986 Rollerblade, Inc., begins to market skates as fitness and recreational equipment. 1989 Rollerblade, Inc. produced the Macro and Aeroblades models, the first skates fastened with three buckles instead of long laces that needed threading. 1990 Rollerblade, Inc. switched to a glass-reinforced thermoplastic resin (durethan polyamide) for their skates, replacing the polyurethane compounds that were previously used. This decreased the average weight of skates by nearly fifty percent. In 1990, inline skate developers once again turned to efforts to find designs and materials that would allow skaters to simulate more of the ice and quad roller figure and dance skating maneuvers. Roller skaters discovered the competitive advantages of inline skates, especially increased speed. Skate designers also began to explore wheel sizes and frame alignment. However, the majority of the development during this decade was intended for ice hockey and ice speed cross-training for skaters 1993 Rollerblade, Inc. developed the  ABT  or  Active Brake Technology. A fiberglass post was attached at one end to the top of the boot and at the other end to a rubber-brake and hinged to the chassis at the back wheel. The skater had to straighten one leg to stop, driving the post into the brake, which then hit the ground. Skaters had already been tilting their foot back to make contact with the ground, before ABT, so this new brake design improved safety. Pat McHale secures the United States and European patents for  a multi-purpose inline skate in 1993. This skate design features offset inline wheels that create an inside-outside edge with lateral stability for control of edges that are similar to ice blades. In 1993, two other inventors, Bert Lovitt, and Warren Winslow work together to invent an all-terrain skate that uses 2 angled wheels. 1995 The Italian firm Risport introduced the 3-wheeled â€Å"Galaxie† figure frame and an entry-level cheap 3-wheels inline figure skate all-plastic: â€Å"Kiria† in white and â€Å"Aries† in black. Another model with a metal frame and plastic boot was called â€Å"Vega†. All of these inline skates were designed with toe stops. Risport also discovered that a flat 3-wheeled frame can behave as a rockered frame just by using a much harder wheel in the center, thus splitting unevenly the skater’s weight among them. Sporting goods company K2, Inc. comes up with a soft boot design which in most aspects of the sport (except Aggressive Skating) has become the most common design. This company also heavily promotes the soft boot design for fitness. By 2000, most skate manufacturers followed suit, although the hard boot is still preferred by aggressive skaters. Diederik Hol sees a bulletin board announcement that Dutch manufacturer offers a six-month research training into designing a clap skate. He saw an opportunity to develop something with the potential of setting new world records, and he used the project as a springboard for his career in design engineering. He graduated having worked on the Rotrax skate, a multiple-hinge frame that ensures a more powerful push-off and thus higher speed. John Petell, President of Harmony Sports Inc., contacts Nick Perna, a PSA master rated coach, to test a retrofit product they called the PIC. The PIC ® device attached to conventional inline skates to enable figure skaters to perform figure skating moves requiring a toe pick that was not otherwise possible on conventional inline skates. A French inventor named Jean-Yves Blondeau gets a patent for his 31-wheeled Rollerman suit (also known as the Wheel Suit or Buggy Rollin) in 1995. This suit is designed with wheels that are very similar to inline skate wheels carefully placed on most of the major joints of the body, on the torso and even on the back. 1997 Inline skates and skating accessories become a billion-dollar international industry, with nearly 26 million Americans participating. Lovitt Winslow file their first Patent Application for their all-terrain skate invention with 2 angled wheels. 1998 The collaboration between Nick Perna and John Petell results in the development of a  rockered  inline figure skate frame.  The final patent for the PIC skate was published on April 14, 1998. A total of  23 claims were granted by the patent examiner, but the key element to the PICand other similar skates is the toe pic angle which closely mirrors the pick angle on ice skates.  The jagged metal toe picks on ice skates are used to spike jumps  and assist footwork, and this inline skate has the same capabilities via the patented PIC.   The Rollerblade Coyote  skate was introduced in 1997 as the first true off-road skate in the industry. The air-filled tires were designed for shock absorption, traction, and terrain versatility. 1999 Lovitt Winslow incorporate the new LandRoller company to manufacture and market their new skates with angled wheels. Sportsline International offers Diederik Hol a chance to design a whole new product line of skates. After less than a year of dedicated thinking and drawing concepts, he designed what is now known as the Mogema Dual Box. 2000 Inline figure skating develops as an off-ice training tool for ice skaters and emerges as a competitive event in roller sports. Some manufacturers, like Triax/Snyder, respond by providing equipment options needed for figure skating. 2002 In November of 2002, after the first World Inline Figure Skating Championships in Germany, the coach of Chien-Hao Wang visits Arthur Lee to discuss damage to Wangs inline skates and request the development of a better inline figure skating frame. Three years after he made his first sketch, Diederik Hol convinces the Rollerblade World Team and others to use Mogemas at the World Inline Championships in France. 45 skaters won their gold, silver, and bronze medals on Mogemas. 2003 The prototype for Arthur Lees Snow White  Inline is complete. 2004 Snow White sponsors two Taiwanese skaters, Chia-Hsiang Yang and Chia-Ling Hsin, for the 2004 World inline Championships in Fresno, CA. Kadu, coach of  Gustavo Casado Melo  and Adrian Baturin, and Ms. Yasaman Hejazi, coach of the Iran Inline Figure Skating Federation, are among the first coaches to use Snow White frames. 2005 LandRollers  Angled Wheel Technology  breaks away from traditional inline designs with two large, side-mounted, out-of-line angled wheels that roll astride the centerline of the boot and maintain a low center of gravity. 2006 Wheel Anti-Reversing Technology was developed by Bruce Honaker to help new inline skaters by allowing them to keep both skates on the ground, and parallel to each other. This creates comfort and stability as momentum is gained. Fear of rolling backward on inclines is also eliminated. The device may be removed after skating skills develop. 2013 Brian Green and the  Cardiff Skate Company  offer an adjustable skate with a unique three-wheel configuration and braking system that is promoted as being more stable and more convenient than any other skate on the market. Flex Brake,  Ben Wilsons lightweight braking system  designed to fit most inline speed skates or fitness skates, Alex Bellehumeurs  DXS  Inline Skating Disk Brake  system  and  Gravity Master  calf activated  brakes from  Craig Ellis revive interest  in inline skate stopping technology.

Steps in Introducing a New Product in the Market Case Study

Steps in Introducing a New Product in the Market - Case Study Example This particular case was assigned to illustrate the notion that the success of a new product in the market mainly depends on the company’s ability to uphold customer demands as well as interests. In order to carry out successful research about product development, a four-step process can be adopted. The first step is idea generation which is followed by concept screening which is related to conducting surveys about the purchasing behaviour of the targeted people. The third step is related to product development and testing and this can be done through focus groups. The fourth stage is the quantification of the volume where the company estimates the likely sales volumes of the new product being introduced into the market. The other issue why the case study was assigned is related to the fact that the success of a new product in the market depends on measures that are put to satisfy unmet demand. The other issue is that a company should not be complacent after introducing a successful brand in the market. The company ought to be innovative so as to be in a position to keep pace with the constantly changing consumer trends. This helps the organization to stay ahead of the other rival competitors who may also offer the same products in this particular market. This entails that the company that has launched a new product should continue carrying out market research so as to be able to gather information about the interests of the consumers. The major challenge of launching a new product in a competitive market is that it may be difficult for the company to project realistic sales volumes that can sustain its operations. Over and above, it can be observed that a holistic approach should be taken when a company intends to launch a new product into the market. It is imperative for the organization to carry thorough market research so as to be in a position to satisfy the interests of the customers.

A Quantitative Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Quantitative Analysis - Essay Example In addition, it also markets products meant for kids, and even other athletic and recreational uses, such as baseball, cricket, lacrosse, outdoor activities, tennis, volleyball, walking, and wrestling. To add on, it sells sports clothing and accessories. Lastly, it sells a series of performance equipment, including bags, socks, sports balls, eyewear, timepieces, digital devices, bats, gloves and other protective equipment (Miller, 1992). The sources of market for the company include various strategic stores for the already mentioned activities. However, there exist other retail accounts through the enterprise owned retail stores and Websites of the Internet, who are very direct to consumers (Ramaswamy, 2008). It is comparatively important to mention that the Nike company was formed in 1964 and that the headquarter in Beaverton, Oregon. This report gives the most recent quantitative analysis and goes further to explain the various financial analysis that puts the company ahead in terms of its performance. The investigation has shown that financial results for its fiscal 2015 quarter two ended on November 30, 2014. The quarter results demonstrate that the company is on the growing side and that the power of the portfolio is what unlocks the growth (Parker, 2015). Net working capital involves the discrepancy between the current assets and current liabilities. Examples of current assets are cash and inventories. This can be in the resources this company has not forgetting accounts receivable not yet seen in money form. It is always used to determine the net worth. However, the calculation also involves the current liabilities the company has. It is not the case of Nike Company that has more assets compared to liabilities. In totality as an analyst, in order to make networking capital run smoothly the management structure should be well established so as to know when to lend or buy for the Company success. Based on the financial records below, it clearly depicts

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â€Å"Ilmu pengetahuan tanpa nilai-nilai yang mulia belum tentu dapat melahirkan masyarakat yang baik dan berjaya. Nilai-nilai yang mulia tanpa ilmu pengetahuan juga tidak akan melahirkan masyarakat yang berjaya†. Begitulah ungkapan kata-kata bestari oleh mantan Perdana Menteri kita, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Bapa Pemodenan Negara yang merupakan salah satu daripada pencetus kegemilangan dunia pendidikan negara. Selamat pagi dan Salam 1 Malaysia saya ucapkan kepada: Pengerusi Majlis, Yang Amat Berhormat Datuk Johan Ashaari bin Murti, Menteri Pendidikan merangkap Timbalan Perdana Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Romario Ansam anak Rungah, Timbalan Menteri Pendidikan. Yang Amat Berhormat Pehin Sri Maher Zain, Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Freddy Jabu anak Jugah, Timbalan Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Halimah, Menteri Tugas-tugas Khas Dalam Negeri berkaitan Pendidikan. Yang Berhormat Datuk-datuk dan Datin-datin. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Ariffin Faiq, Ketua Pengarah Pendidikan. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Sabri bin Rahmat, Rektor IPGM. Yang Dihormati Encik Hafiz Azman, Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri. Yang Berusaha Puan Saftuyah binti Safri, Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pengarah-pengarah IPGK dan Wakil-wakil Pengarah IPGK. Yang Berusaha Encik Amir bin Jamal, Timbalan Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Ketua-ketua Jabatan Persekutuan dan Negeri. Ketua-ketua Jabatan dan Ketua-ketua Unit Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pensyarah-pensyarah Kanan. Para Pensyarah. Staf-staf Sokongan. Para Graduan. Para Ibu Bapa. Tuan-tuan dan Puan-puan dekat di hati. Tegak rumah kerana tiangnya, tegak bumi kerana paksinya, tegaknya saya di sini adalah untuk menyampaikan sebuah pidato yang bertajuk â€Å"Kecemerla... ...unyai muhasabah diri, mereka mampu mencipta nama dan berjaya di peringkat global. Tuan-tuan dan puan-puan yang dihormati sekalian, Sedarkah anda bahawa percubaan dan uji kaji ribuan kali telah dilakukan oleh Thomas Adison untuk mencipta lampu yang dapat kita nikmati faedahnya sehingga ke hari ini? Tahukah anda bahawa Colonel Sandera telah bersusah payah siang dan malam untuk mencipta resepi rahsia KFC nya sehingga semua kita yang pada hari ini menjamahnya sehingga menjilat jari? Sikap sebeginilah yang wajar diambilkan sebagai contoh dan panduan sekiranya kita ingin betul-betul cemerlang dalam akademik bahkan kehidupan kita seharian. Antara rahsia kejayaan orang-orang yang hebat ini ialah kepatuhan kepada disiplin. Lihatlah wahai dunia bahawa orang-orang yang berdisiplin ini yang akan menggoncang dunia! Bak kata pepatah, â€Å"siapa yang menuai, dia akan dapat hasilnya†.

Logical Positivism Essay

Also known as logical empiricism, rational empiricism or neo-positivism, logical positivism is the name given in 1931 by A.E Blumberg and Herbert Feigl to a set of philosophical ideas put forward by the Vienna Circle. This Vienna Circle was a group of early twentieth century philosophers who sought to re-conceptualize empiricism by means of their interpretation of then recent advances in the physical and formal sciences. Hence, the Vienna Circle represented a radical â€Å"anti-metaphysical† stance which held the view that an empiricist criterion for meaning and a logicist conception of mathematics could prove the meaningfulness of statements (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy). Logical positivism is the school of thought that attempts to introduce the methodology and precision of mathematics and the natural science into the field of philosophy. The movement, which began in the early twentieth century, was the fountainhead of the modern trend that considers philosophy an analytical, rather than a speculative inquiry (Passmore). As a school of philosophy, logical positivism â€Å"combines positivism with a version of apriorism , that is, the view that holds that some propositions can be held true without empirical support† (Wikipedia Encyclopaedia). According to the Oxford Companion to Philosophy, the movement’s doctrine is ‘centred on the principle of verifiability. This holds the notion that individual sentences gain their meaning by some specification of the actual steps we take for determining their truth or falsity’. In essence, logical positivism seeks to verify the meaning in statements through empirical observations. Historical Background of Logical Positivism The position of the original logical positivists was a blend of the positivism of Ernst Mach with the logical concepts of Gottleb Frege and Bertrand Russell. But, their inspiration was derived from the writings of Ludwig Wittgenstein and G.E Moore. According to Passmore, in his article â€Å"Logical Positivism†, the logical positivists thought of themselves as continuing a nineteenth century Viennese empirical tradition, closely linked with British empiricism and culminating in the anti-metaphysical scientifically oriented teaching of Ernst Mach. He further pointed out that in 1907 the mathematician Hans Hahn, the economist and sociologist Otto Neurath and the physicist Phillip Frank, all of whom were later to be prominent members of the Vienna Circle, came together as an informal group to discuss the philosophy of science. In addition, Passmore posited that they did this in hope that they could ‘give an account of science to the importance of mathematics, logic and theoretical physics without abandoning Mach’s general doctrine that science is, fundamentally, the description of experience’ (par. 2). Subsequently, they adopted views from the â€Å"new positivism† of Poincare and coupled it with Mach’s views in an attempt to anticipate the main themes in logical positivism (par. 2). Logical Positivists view of Traditional Philosophy The philosophical position of logical positivism in its original form was the outcome of the profoundly incisive influences of Wittgenstein and Moore (Runes 359). Logical positivists were concerned about the soundness of metaphysics and other traditional philosophy. They asserted that many philosophical problems were indeed meaningless. Hence, they decided to abandon the traditional approach to philosophy and attempted to persuade people to utilise their approach instead. One of the chief tenets of logical positivism was that the supposed propositions of metaphysics, ethics and epistemology were not verifiable and so were not strictly ‘meaningful’.[1] Furthermore, Carnap, of the Vienna Circle, corroborated this view in his work â€Å"The Unity of Science†, when he stated that ‘we give no answer to philosophical questions and instead reject all philosophical questions, whether Metaphysics, Ethics or Epistemology’ (qtd. in the Stanford Encyclopedia of P hilosophy). Therefore, the purpose of the logical positivists was not to renovate the principles of traditional philosophy but to destroy them. Metaphysics was rejected on the grounds that its assertions were meaningless since they could not be verified in experience. Thus, statements about the existence of God were discarded as pointless because they could not be verified. Notably, whereas earlier critics of metaphysics such as Kant and Hume had rejected the claims of metaphysics as a form of theoretical knowledge, the logical positivists took over from Wittgenstein’s â€Å"Tractatus† the rejection of metaphysics as meaningless. Furthermore, the logical positivists argued that the propositions of metaphysics were neither true nor false but could be regarded as pseudo-statements (Logical Positivism 61). Metaphysics was not the only traditional discipline that the logical positivists were concerned about. Likewise, epistemology faced harsh criticisms from them. On one hand, the neo-Kantians saw epistemology as ‘the propaedeutic to metaphysics and all other philosophical disciplines’ (Oxford Companion to Philosophy 647). They maintained that philosophy could be reduced to epistemology in which a topic like â€Å"the reality of the external world† was discussed. On the other hand, for the logical positivists, epistemology was disregarded as a significant branch of philosophy because they thought that there was no way of verifying the assertions postulated by epistemology. They argued that this branch of philosophy was â€Å"quite meaningless like assertions about the Absolute.†[2] They held this position because for them there was no way of empirically verifying that an external world exists which is independent of the world we know now, as such those statements were ignored. Another tenet of traditional philosophy that the logical positivists disagreed with was ethics. Certainly, they all rejected any variety of transcendental ethics and any attempt to set up a â€Å"realm of values† over and above the world of experience. Passmore stated that, Assertions about values thus conceived, fall within the general province of transcendental metaphysics and had therefore been rejected as nonsensical. But while Schlick sought to free ethics from its metaphysical elements by converting it into a naturalistic theory along quasi-utilitarian lines, Carnap and Ayer argued that what are ordinarily taken to be ethical assertions are not assertions at all. For example to say that â€Å"stealing is wrong,† is neither, they suggested, to make an empirical statement about stealing nor to relate stealing to some transcendental realm. â€Å"Stealing is wrong† would either express our feelings about stealing, our feelings of disapproval, or, alternatively (this was where the logical positivist opinions differed), it is an attempt to dissuade others from stealing. In either case, â€Å"stealing is wrong† conveys no information. (par. 17) In addition to the above mentioned concepts, logical positivists also posited the idea that propositions of logic and mathematics were meaningful but their truth was discovered, not by experiment or observation, but by analysis. Also, for logical positivism the ‘business’ of philosophy was not to engage in metaphysics or other attempted assertions about what is the case but rather to engage in analysis. Furthermore, the only genuine propositions were those that are verifiable (Brown et al 218). Basically, the logical positivists’ emphasis was on logic and language. Logical positivists preferred that, instead of accepting traditional philosophy, philosophers should subscribe to the doctrine of verification. Doctrine of Verification Central to the movement’s doctrines was the principle of verifiability, often called the verification principle that is â€Å"the notion that individual sentences gain their meaning by some specification of the actual steps we take for determining their truth or falsity†.[3] According to logical positivism, there are only two sources of knowledge: logical reasoning and empirical experience. The former is analytic a priori, while the latter is synthetic a posteriori; hence synthetic a priori knowledge does not exist (Murzi 7). For logical positivists, the meaning of a statement lies in the method of its verification. This means that a statement has meaning if, and only if, it is verifiable† (Bochenski, 57). Verifiable, in this sense, means that the statement is derived from knowing the conditions under which it is true or false. If the statement cannot be proven true or false it is disregarded as meaningless. Carnap emphasized in â€Å"Logical Positivism† that only meaningful sentences were divisible into (theoretically) fruitful and sterile, true and false propositions (61). In essence, a sequence of words is meaningless if it does not, within a specified language, constitute a statement. Ayer also defined, explained, and argued for the verification principle of logical positivism. Ayer expressed, in his book Logical Positivism, the view that â€Å"sentences (statements or propositions) are meaningful if they can be assessed either by an appeal directly or indirectly to some fundamental form of sense-experience or by an appeal to the meaning of a word and the grammatical structure that constitute them. In the former case, sentences are said to be synthetically true or false; in the latter, analytically true or false.† Once the sentences under examination fail to meet the verifiability test, they are labelled meaningless. Therefore statements about metaphysical, religious, aesthetic, and ethical claims are considered insignificant. For the logical positivists, based on the verification principle, an ethical claim would have meaning only in so far as it professed something empirical. For example, â€Å"if part of what is meant by ‘X is good’ is roughly ‘I like it,’ then ‘X is good’ is false.† The primary ‘meaning’ of such sentences is emotive or evocative. Thus, for Ayer, ‘X is good’ is a meaningless utterance. As such statements are not verified by looking at the entire words in a sentence but by minutely analyzing the words singularly in a sentence to determine there meaning. Likewise, for Carnap, words or sentences must be verified by certain criterion, for instance, the syntax of a word must be fixed, that is in each use of the word in what Carnap calls an ‘elementary sentence’ the meaning must be unchanging. Secondly, for an elementary sentence containing a word, it must be determined from what sentence is the word deducible, and what sentences are deducible from the word. Also, under what conditions should the word or sentence be considered to be true or false, how is it to be verified and what is its meaning? For instance, take this example by Carnap using the word ‘anthropods’. Anthropods are animals with segmented bodies and jointed legs (this is the elementary sentence) from this it can de deduced that X is an animal, X has a segmented body, X has jointed legs. Hence, â€Å"by means of these stipulations about deducibility or truth- condition, about the method of its meaning of the elementary sentence about anthropod, the meaning of the word is fixed.† In this way every word of the language is reduced to other words and finally to the words which occur in the so-called â€Å"observation sentences† or â€Å"protocol sentences.† Carnap claims that it is through this reduction the word acquires meaning. (Logical Positivism 62-63). Problems with Logical Positivism In the Contemporary European Philosophy, Bochenski claimed that the doctrine used by logical positivists to verify sentences involved great difficulties of various kinds. For instance, a one protocol-sentence can be called into question and tested by another protocol-sentence, such as; the sanity of a physicist can be called into question and examined by the psychiatrist (58). The question has been asked of the logical positivist as to the basis of the protocol sentence, but they replied by stating that the object of experience can only be sensations. Questions of reality are ‘pseudo-problems,’ because we can never encounter anything but sensations and we can never verify the existence of things that are other than our sensations (59). Bochenski also commented that since verifications are made by the senses, â€Å"no statement can be verified other than those relating to the body and its movements; all statements of introspective psychology and classical philosophy are unverifiable, therefore meaningless.†[4] It follows that the only meaningful language is that of physics, and that all science should be unified. One condition remains to be fulfilled according to Bochenski and that is, for a statement to have meaning: it must be built in accordance with the syntactical rules of language. Therefore, it is meaningful to say, â€Å"the horse eats† but â€Å"the eat eats† has no meaning. Also statements that you and I know such as, ‘I love you Mummy’ or ‘I am feeling really sad today’ would have no meaning because they cannot be empirically verified. How then would we express our sensations? There is therefore no guarantee that things verified will remain verified; for example, it was commonly known that the world was flat and that if you go to the end you will fall off, this was how it was known to be until it was rediscovered by Columbus and his men that the world was round. Another problem outlined by Passmore is that, because â€Å"the meaning of a proposition is the method of its verification,† it is not a scientific proposition. Positivists responded to this by claiming that it should not be read as a statement but as a proposal, that is, a recommendation that propositions should not be accepted as meaningless unless they are verifiable. In response to Passmore’s statement, Carnap suggested that the verifiability principle is a clarification which will distinguish forms of activity which are otherwise likely to be confused with one another; metaphysicians will thus be able to tell what propositions are meaningless (Logical Positivism). Impact on Subsequent Philosophy Passmore wrote that logical positivism is dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes; but it has left a legacy behind. Logical positivism was essential to the development of early analytic philosophy. It was disseminated throughout the European continent and, later, in American universities by the members of the Vienna Circle. According to the Routeledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, this transplanted to the English – speaking world of ‘analytic’ philosophy. Originally, it set up a series of sharp contrasts: between metaphysics and science, logical and factual truths, the verifiable and the non-verifiable, the corrigible and the incorrigible, what can be shown and what can be said, facts and theories. Logical positivism tremendously influenced the philosophy of science and the application of logic (language) and mathematical techniques to philosophical problems more generally. Logical positivism therefore has an established place in the history and continuing development of philosophy. At least three reasons can be given for this. One is purely historical, regarding the considerable impact and influence of the movement in its glory days. A second lies in the intrinsic interest of its ideas. The third lies in the fact that even if no one today would call themselves a logical positivist some of its main positions, such as verification and emotivism in Ethics, are specification of the actual steps we take for determining their truth or falsity (Hanfling). Also, logical positivism was immensely influential in the philosophy of language. The philosophy of language for the logical positivists is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. Also, it was used in conjunction with logic (Wikipedia Encyclopedia par 1). The spread of logical positivism in the USA occurred throughout the 1930s. The pragmatic tradition of Pierce, James and Dewey, with its instrumentalist conception of science, provided a healthy stock on which to graft logical empiricism, which, particularly in Carnap’s work, already had a pragmatist bent (Hackers 183). The rise of logical positivism was evident in the European continent. The English philosopher Alfred Jules Ayer played an important role in spreading logical positivism. In his book, Language, Truth and Logic, Ayer completely accepted both the Verifiability Principle and the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, and so he asserted that metaphysical sentences were meaningless. Furthermore, a direct influence was exerted by Waismann and Neurath who immigrated to England. According to Murzi, in his work â€Å"The Philosophy of Logical Positivism†, in the twentieth century, logical positivism has provided a platform for Italian philosophy, Polish philosophy and Scandinavian philosophy (19). The influence of logical positivism began to diminish around 1960 with the rise of â€Å"pragmatic form of naturalism due to Quine and a historical-sociological approach to philosophy of science due mainly to Thomas Kuhn.† Nevertheless, it must be noted that logical positivism played a very important role in the development of contemporary philosophy, not only for its philosophical principles, but also for its editorial and organizational activities. The efforts of the logical positivists to rid science and meaningful discourse generally, of metaphysics, their attempt to create a ‘unified science’ by laying bare the logical structure of scientific theories and thereby showing the structural similarities, their insistence on logic and empiricism as being the only two reliable and acceptable pillars of knowledge—all these contributed towards a scientific universalism.[5] Logical positivism is studied by many modern day students of philosophy and authors; philosophers well as have written about it thus testifying to its continued existence, if not its practice. Notwithstanding the above mentioned, it is necessary to note that while logical positivism may have laid a platform for other philosophies, its approach seek to have dismissed the traditional philosophies. Now, if one should pursue logical positivism seriously, then as postulated before, certain feelings would become empty. As Coppleston noted, the growth of logical positivism has helped to produce a mental outlook which was unfavourable to metaphysics and to religion (32). Logical positivism is synonymous to an amoral type philosophy and with those tendencies entrenched in our society a chaotic environment would be established. Personally, looking at its attempt to rid itself of things that can not be proven, in every case it has destroyed too much even where philosophers found it difficult to continue writing. Magee in his book, Confession of a Philosopher: A Personal Journey Through Western Philosophy from Plato to Popper, professed to this. For him, â€Å"there was a period in which several of the cleverest philosophers became reluctant to say anything at all, because almost nothing that might be deemed to be worth saying was, unless it was factually provable, permissible.† In conclusion, logical positivism, then, is an approach to verifying the meaning of statements through empirical observation. It is a philosophic tradition that attempted to use science and logic to determine the truth or falsity of statements, and to disprove the meaningfulness of metaphysical, ethical and epistemological ideas as we know them to be meaningful. Like any other school of thoughts in philosophy it has come up against criticisms, however it did make contributions to philosophy and philosophical thinking as we know it today whether it is by being studied, opposed, or supported by philosophers. Works Cited Ayer, A.J. ed .Logical Positivism. New York: Free Press Co-operation, 1959. Bochenski, I.M. Contemporary European Philosophy. London: Cambridge University, 1956. Brown Stuart et al. One Hundred Twentieth Century Philosophers. London: Routledge Publishing Ltd. 1999. Hackers, PMS. Wittgenstein’s Place in Twentieth Century Analytic Philosophy. London: Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Hanfling, Oswald. Logical Positivism. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1981. Honderich, Ted, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. â€Å"Logical Positivism.† Concise Routeledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2000. . â€Å"Logical Positivism.† Wikipedia Encyclopedia. 5 Nov. 2006 Retrieved 18 Oct. 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism Magee, Bryan. Confession of a Philosopher: A Personal Journey through Western Philosophy from Plato to Popper. New York: Random House Inc. 1997. Murzi, Mauro. The Philosophy of Logical Positivism†. Online posting. 18 Oct. 2007. http://www.murzim.net/LP/LP00.html Passmore, J. â€Å"Logical Positivism.† The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 26 Oct. 2004 Retrieved 24 Oct. 2007. http://www.comnet.ca/~pballan/logicalpos(passmore).htm Runes, Dagobert. Living Schools of Philosophy: Twentieth Century Philosophy. Iowa: Littlefield, Adams and Co. 1958. Shah, Mohd Hazim. â€Å"Logical Positivism, Scientism, Universalism and Globalization.† Online posting. 11 Jun. 2002. 24 Oct. 2007. http://sts.um.edu.my/E-Library/Lecture%20Notes/SFGS6111/LP2.pdf â€Å"Vienna Circle.† Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 28 Jun. 2006 Retrieved 18 Oct. 2007 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/ ———————– [1] Honderich, Ted, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. [2] Passmore, J. â€Å"Logical Positivism.† The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 26 Oct. 2004 Retrieved 24 Oct. 2007. http://www.comnet.ca/~pballan/logicalpos(passmore).htm [3] Honderich, Ted, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. [4] Bochenski, I.M. Contemporary European Philosophy. London: Cambridge University, 1956. [5] Shah, Mohd Hazim. â€Å"Logical Positvism, Scientism, Universalism and Globalisation.† Online posting. 11 Jun. 2002. 24 Oct. 2007.

Female Influence in Greek Mythology Essay examples

The ability of women to influence the course of events in Iliad and Odyssey Women have always been an important part of human history since it began. The Greek Myths also show how women, though not as powerful as men, have been able to cause great changes to the course of events. The Trojan of war is one glorified example of it where because of one woman thousands of soldiers died. I would like to talk about such women from the readings that we have done in this course. I shall be talking about Helen of Troy, Kalypso, Circe, Nausicaa and Penelope to show how mortals and immortals have powers of sort but are still inferior to men. We shall talk about the characters from the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, so I shall give a brief background†¦show more content†¦She was able to empower men with her beauty and that is why she is such a powerful character. She was also able to runaway with another man and this in Homeric time was unacceptable but she still does it. Kalypso was the daughter of Atlas and she was a seam nymph in Greek mythology. She, with her powers, empowers Odysseus and enslaves him as she wanted him to marry her. She was able to do so even though Odysseus was much powerful than her. Odysseus loved his wife too much and wanted to go back to her but was not able to do so. Until Athena asks Zeus to free him from the island and let him get back to his beloved wife Penelope. Kalypso only lets Odysseus go when Hermes, messenger of Gods, comes down on Zeus request and tells Kalypso to release him. He finally goes back to his wife after seven years of imprisonment. This shows us that though Kalypso was not a goddess nor as powerful as Odysseus, she was still able to hold him back for seven years. It is also surprising that she was able to confess her love and her desire to have Odysseus for herself. It is also interesting to see that Kalypso is obedient enough to honor Zeus’ wish without creating any troubles for Hermes. 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